SB 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 178. 

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief v/ Bureau. 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP 
IN CALIFORNIA. 



Br 



HENRY F. BLANCHARD, 
Assistant Agronomist, Office of Grain Investigations. 



Issued June 1, 1910. 







WASHINGTON: 

government printing office. 

1910. 



.in. 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN NO. 178. 

B. T. GALLOWAY, ChUf of Hnrcau. 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP 
IN CALIFORNIA. 



BY 



HENRY F. BLANCHARD, 



Assistant Agronomist, Office of Grain Investigations. 



Issued June 1, 1910. 




WASHINGTON: 
government printing office. 



1910. 



w^ 



V 



.a' 






BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. 



Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway. 
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell. 
Editor. J. E. Rockwell. 
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones. 



Grain Investigations. 



SCIENTIFIC .STAFF. 



Mark Alfred Carleton, Cerealist in Charge. 
VV. M. Jardinc, C. R. Ball, II. B. Derr, and C. W. Warburton, Agronomists. 

E. C. JohBSon, Pathologist. 
C. E. Chambliss, Expert. 

John F. Ross, Farm Superintendent. 

H. F. Blanchard and II. J. C. Umberger, Assistant Agronomists. 

F. R. Babcock, V. L. Cory, F. D. Farrell, and W. G. Shellej-, Assistants. 

E. L. Adams, L. C. Burnett, Manley Champlin, J. M. Jenkins, A. A. Potter, and Cecil Salmon, Special 
Agents. 
178 



JUN 22 1910 



LETTER OE TRANSMITTAL. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Bureau of Plant Industry, 

Office of the Chief, 
Washington , D. C, Fehruary 28, 1910. 

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled 
"Improvement of the Wheat Crop in Cahfornia," by Mr. Henry F. 
Bhmchard, Assistant Agronomist in the Office of Grain Investiga- 
tions, and recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 178 of the 
series of this Bureau. 

For many years there has been a steady deterioration in the wheat 
crop of Cahfornia, due to two general causes, (1) bad methods in farm 
practice and (2) a lack of varieties adapted to that region. The 
Office of Grain Investigations, of this Bureau, has investigated these 
conditions for about five years, during a part of which time the work 
has been in cooperation with the state experiment station at Berk- 
eley, Cal. Besides observations on many farms and other investiga- 
tions, experiments in methods of cultivation and adaptation of 
varieties have been conducted in detail at two points, Davis and 
Modesto. The accompanying paper gives briefly some of the results 
of investigations, to date, along these lines. 

Respectfully, 

G. H. Powell, 

Acting Chief of Bureau. 

Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 

178 . 3 



CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Introduction 7 

Common methods of cnltivation unsatisfactory 8 

( )riii;inal methods of cultivation 8 

( 'hanges from original methods S 

Bad results <»f jiast and present methods 9 

Soil low in humus and nitrates 9 

Soil foul with weeds 10 

Requirements for the production of profitable crops 10 

Smaller farms and personal supervision by owners 10 

Improved methods 11 

Deep plowing 11 

Addition of humus and nitrogen to the soil 12 

Crops to be used as green manure 13 

Time and method of handling 13 

Effect of deep plowing and green manuring 15 

Increased yields 15 

Increased profits 17 

Cleaning the land of weeds 18 

Development of better varieties of wheat 19 

Variety tests in California 19 

Selecting varieties for California 20 

Climate and soil 20 

Habit of growth 21 

Nonshattering habit 21 

Milling quality 22 

Other requisites 22 

Seed improvement by the grower 23 

Small compared with large seed - - 23 

The seed plat 23 

Two new varieties of wheat adapted 1o California conditions 24 

The Chul variety 24 

Origin and history ,. 24 

Introduction into California 25 

Description 25 

Yields obtained 25 

Milling quality 2G 

The Fretes variety 26 

Origin and history 26 

Description 27 

Yields obtained 27 

Milling quality 28 

Pure seed of the Chul and Fretes varieties 29 

Protein content as affected by lime of seeding 29 

Summary 30 

Index 33 

178 5 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 
Fig. 1. Wheat plants from six plats treated differently, showing comparative 

development 12 

2. Wheat growing on plat which has been continuously seeded to the 

same crop 1 ;5 

3. Wheat growing on plat on which Canadian field peas were grown and 

plowed under in 1908 14 

4. Wheat growing on plat on which rye and vetch were grown and plowed 

under in 1908 15 

5. Wheat growing on plat on which rye was grown and plowed under 

in 1908 16 

6. Representative plants of six varieties of wheat from uniform plats 

planted November 21, 1908, at Modesto, Cal., showing their com- 
parative development on May 1 , 1909 21 

7. Representative plants of six additional varieties of wheat from uniform 

plats planted November 21, 1908, at Modesto, Cal., showing their 
comparative development on May 1, 1909 22 

8. Chul wheat (G. I. No. 2227) growing at Modesto, Cal., in 1909 24 

9. Fretes wheat (G. I. No. 1596) growing at Modesto, Cal., in 1909 27 

10. AVhite Australian wheat (G. I. No. 3019) growing at Modesto, Cal., 

in 1909 28 

178 
6 



B. P. 1.-^556. 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN 

CALIFORNIA. 



INTRODUCTION. 

An impression exists among many California farmers that the 
soil will no longer produce profitable yields of good milling wheats. 
This impression is strengthened by two well-recognized facts: 
(1) That under past and present methods of wheat culture the soil 
is failing in many localities to produce as large crops as heretofore, 
and (2) that the Australian and Club varieties, the most widely 
grown California wheats, are extremely starchy. As only these 
very starchy varieties have been extensively grown, it has become 
necessary for the millei"s to import large quantities of Turkey wheat 
from the Middle West to blend with the California wheats. 

In order to discover varieties better adapted to California needs 
than those commonly grown, the Office of Grain Investigations of the 
Bureau of Plant Industry has for a number of years conducted ex- 
tensive tests of wheat varieties, including many of foreign origin. 
In this way it was hoped to improve the California wheat crop in 
both yield and milling quality. As improved methods of cultivation 
are necessary also to obtain profitable yields of nitrogenous wheats, 
an effort has been made to determine the effect of deep plowing and 
the addition of humus to the soil in the form of winter green-manure 
crops. The time of plowing, the conservation of moisture, and 
the eradication of weeds have also been considered. If the State is 
to continue the profitable use of its grain lands and derive from them 
the largest possible return, it is quite necessary that there be an im- 
provement in the general practices of cultivation and in the varieties 
grown. 

The investigations covered by this report are in general based 
upon results obtained and observations made during a number of 
years, a part of the time in cooperation with the California Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station. An effort has been made to so correlate 
the results and observations that they will be of benefit to the Cali- 
fornia grain grower in effecting improvement in soil fertility, in the 
32912— Bui. 178—10 2 7 



8 IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. 

yield of wheat to the acre, and in the niiUing quahty of the grain 
produced. 

The investigations carried on thus far are simply the foundation 
for a more extensive work in the future. It is necessary in order to 
find a few desirable varieties that a large number be fii-st grown in 
small areas and compared with the commonly grown varieties. 
The results obtained in this way indicate which varieties may be 
submitted to practical tests directly with the farmers. 

COMMON METHODS OF CULTIVATION UNSATISFACTORY. 

The cultivation methods still commonly practiced by many of 
the farmers of California have been brought about by the conditions 
existing about 1860, when it was first discovered that wheat could 
be grown as a profitable crop. These conditions were as follows: 
Fertile virgin soil, large level valleys facilitating extensive cultiva- 
tion, a growing season extending from November to June, and a 
period of rainfall extending over the growing season, with com- 
paratively high temperatures during the winter months and low 
temperatures during the spring months. The methods are generally 
very simple and very crude. They consist in the continuous cropping 
of wheat and barley upon soil which receives only a very shallow 
cultivation. The farmer is removing the plant food from the soil 
without the addition of anything to take its place. This is resulting 
in many localities in a depleted condition of the soil, and profitable 
crops of wheat are no longer grown. 

ORIGINAL METHODS OF CULTIVATION. 

The first grain producers of California attempted to crop as large 
an acreage as possible at a minimum cost. In order to do this, at 
that time all that was necessary was very shallow plowing (3 or 4 
inches in depth), broadcasting the seed, and harrowing it into the 
soil. This was continued from year to year and fairly good crops 
were produced for a while. The header and stationary thrasher 
were used in harvesting the grain. Very little attempt was made 
on the part of the producer to secure pure seed of the varieties grown 
or to practice the careful grading of wheat, using only the largest and 
best kernels for seed. In fact, very little attention was given to the 
seed used. In man}^ instances the farmer used the poorest grade of 
grain that he had grown the previous year. 

CHANGES FROM ORIGINAL METHODS. 

Since the earlier period of wheat production in California some 
changes have taken place or are now in progress. The most important 
of these are the replacing of the header and stationary thrasher by 

178 



COMMON METHODS OF CULTIVATION UNSATISFACTORY. 9 

the combined harvester and the beginning of the practice of summer- 
fallowing the land. 

The change to the combined harvester, about 1880, was due largely 
to labor conditions existing at that time. It was difficult to secure 
enough men to properly handle the grain, and the methods of har- 
vesting were unsatisfactory. The climatic conditions, as well as 
the general contour of the land, were found to be favorable to the 
use of the combined harvester. This machine reduces to the mini- 
mum the number of men employed and at the same time utilizes the 
power of mules and traction engines. 

Proper methods of summer-fallowing the land are not yet generally 
practiced. Summer-fallowing became necessary on account of the 
foul condition of the soil which had been produced by continuous 
cropping to wheat. The use of the combined harvester, however, has 
partly offset the cleaning effect of the fallow. This method of tillage 
is beneficial, especially wdien it precedes a particularly dry season, as 
in this way a large amount of the rainfall for two year's is retained in 
the soil. At first it was found necessary to summer-fallow the land 
every third year only, but later, every second year. 

Other changes which have been taking place during recent years 
are the reduction in size of a few grain farms and an increase in the 
depth of plowing on the part of some farmers. These changes, how- 
ever, occur in individual instances only and are not general in their 
nature. 

BAD RESULTS OF PAST AND PRESENT METHODS. 

We now have in many sections of California, as a result of the com- 
mon methods of wheat culture, a soil which refuses to produce profit- 
able crops of the commonly grown varieties of wheat. The general 
practice of single cropping has depleted the soil in humus and nitrates 
and made it very foul with weeds. 

Soil Low in Humus and Nitrates. 

There are large sections of California which have been sown in 
wheat and barley under the commonly practiced methods for the 
past thirty or forty years. These crops rapidly deplete the soil in 
humus and nitrates. Humus is the decaying organic material which N 
gives body to the soil and is essential in retaining the soil moisture. 
It also affects the temperature of the soil, producing somewhat higher 
temperatures in winter and lower temperatures in summer, according 
to Wollny, as cited by Hilgard." The nitrates of the soil are very 
essential in the production of wheat, as they form an important part 
of the necessary plant food. A soil low in nitrates usually tends to 

aHilgard, E. W. Soils, 1906, p. 306. 
178 



10 IMPBOVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. 

decrease the nitrogen content of wheat grown upon it. On soils low 

in humus and nitrates there is also a correspondingly low yield of 

\ wheat. 

* Soil Foul with Weeds. 

The weed problem is not of minor importance. In fact, when pass- 
ing through California grain fields and finding that large areas are 
badly infested with weeds one is impressed with the effect that they 
must have upon the yields of wheat. This weedy condition is due 
largely to the common methods of harvesting and cultivating. In 
many localities the soil has become so weedy that even with the best 
methods of summer fallowing commonly practiced by the farmer it is 
impossible to prevent large damage to the crops. The weeds in many 
instances crowd out the wheat plants by outgrowing them during the 
winter months. 

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF PROFITABLE CROPS. 

In order to produce profitable crops of wheat on the worn-out grain 
lands of California the past and even the present methods of produc- 
tion must in a large measure give way to methods which will produce 
better results in the future. This to a small degree has already 
taken place in some sections. There are also large areas of the State 
upon which wheat has not been grown for as long a period of time as 
on those sections first farmed. However, these are being rapidly 
reduced to the same depleted condition on account of the unscientific 
practices in use. 

In some localities where the soil now fails to produce profitable 
grain crops it has been possible to grow other crops on the same land. 
In general, such instances are confined to the areas upon which water 
can be applied. Alfalfa and fruit usually do well in such sections. 
There are, however, large areas to which water can not be readily 
applied, and these will no doubt be used for the production of grain 
for many years to come. 

In order to produce crops of grain on such lands it not only becomes 
necessary to introduce new varieties or improved forms of those now 
grown, but a change in the actual farming methods for grain as they 
now exist is absolutely essential. The present methods sufficed for 
a time, and temporary profits from the soil resulted. It has been 
comparatively easy to produce crops from a fertile soil without taking 
into account the effect of such methods upon the soil. It will require 
much more skill and effort to return the soil to a condition in which 
good crops of wheat may again be produced. 

SMALLER FARMS AND PERSONAL SUPERVISION BY OWNERS. 

In the pioneer days of California the interior valleys were not 
considered of much value for the production of crops on account of 

178 



REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 11 

the small amount of rainfall. At that time certain companies were 
enabled to secure large tracts of this land at a nominal price. These 
companies discovered that this land would produce good yields of 
grain and it was cropped on a very large scale. Since that time there 
has been a gradual breaking up of these large farms into smaller 
ones. However, there are still too many large ones to make probable 
the general use of improved methods of grain production. Until 
the farms are so reduced in size that they may be properly handled 
we may look for continued low production and further depletion in 
the soil fertility of the wheat lands. 

Another feature of much of the grain production in California is 
the practice of renting the lands from year to year to men who are 
not interested in the building up of the soil. The desire of the 
tenant is to get all that is possible out of the land at the least expense 
to himself during the time which he holds it. As long as this condi- 
tion exists there will be a continued decrease in the value of the wheat 
lands. The remedy for this is the direct supervision by the owner 
of the methods of cultivation and cropping. He has a real interest 
in the future condition of his soil and will undoubtedly give it better 
attention than the tenant who is interested only in the crop he pro- 
duces each year. 

IMPROVED METHODS. 

Improvement in the methods of wheat culture is essential to tlie 
production of more profitable crops. These improvements include 
tlie practice of deeper plowing, the increase of soil lunnus and 
nitrates by turning under green-manure crops, and the cleaning of 
the land of weeds by better methods of cultivation. 

Deep Plowing. 

At the present time we can not place too much stress upon the 
importance of deep plowing. The few inches of soil at the surface 
have been skimmed for so long that they are practically devoid of 
plant food in available form. For this reason alone it becomes nec- 
essary to turn up fresh soil. This will necessitate cutting below 
that stratum of soil commonly known as the "plow pan," which has 
been formed by the practice of plowing year after year at the same 
depth. In many localities plowing at a depth of from 8 to 12 inches 
is advisable. Unless green-manure crops are to be turned under, 
this depth should be reached by a gradual increase in depth for two 
or three years. By this gradual increase in depth the subsoil will 
become properly mixed with the surface soil. 

Deep plowing requires more power than is needed for the ordinary 
method, and the first deep plowing is more difhcult than subsequent 

178 



12 



IMPROVEMENT OP THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. 



plowings. This is due largely to a more or less packed condition of 
the subsoil. Deep })lowing sliould be done in the early spring while 
there is still sufficient moisture in the soil. It should not be done 
while the soil is either too wet or too dry. Wliile the benefits derived 
from deep plowing may not be so evident the first season, the results 
obtained are of permanent character. The subsoil is benefited by 
direct contact with the air and other climatic influences, and the 

effects of deep plow- 
ing will be more 
noticeable the sec- 
ond and succeeding 
3^ears. 

Addition op Humus and 
Nitrogen to the Soil. 

As already stated 
the soil of California 
grain lands is low in 
humus. In order to 
add humus to the 
soil green - manure 
crops must be 
grown and plowed 
under. This is nec- 
essary not only in 
order that land very 
low in humus be 
again placed in good 
condition, but also 
that lands in wliich 
humus is now fairly 
plentiful be retained 
in good shape (fig. 1). 
Owing to a tendency 
of ver}" light sandy 
soil to shift during 
heavy winds, deep 
plowing may be det- 
rimental at first on 
such soils. This soil 
shifting may, however, be reduced to a minimum by the addition of 
humus, wliich will give it body and make ])ossible the practice of deep 
plowing without injury. 

178 




Fig. 1.— Wheat plants from six plats treated differently, showing com- 
parative development: A , From plat continuously seeded to wheat; 
B, from plat barefallowed in 1908; C, from plat upon which horse 
beans were grown and plowed under in 1908; D, from plat upon 
which Canadian field peas were grown and plowed under in 1908; i?, 
from plat upon which rye and vetch were grown and plowed under 
in 1908; F, from plat upon which rye was grown and plowed under 
in 1908. 



KEQUIEEMENTS FOR PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 



13 



CHOPS TO HK USED AS (MJEEN MANUIIR. 



r^nnadian fieltl ])oas and Al)riizzes rye do very well as o^reen-maniire 
crops in the valley sections of the State. Under favoral)le conditions 
in the Sacramento Valley peas alone have given very good results 
when seeded at the rate of 80 pounds to the acre. On the lighter 
soils of the San Joaquin Valley peas do not make as rank a growth 
as in the Sacramento Valley. For this reason it is suggested that 
peas and rye be grown together, tlie rye to be so\\ti at the rate of 
40 pounds and the peas 50 pounds to the acre. The rye and pea 
vines will adtl humus to the soil, while the nodules on the roots of 




Fig. '-'.—Wheat growing ou plat \viiii_-li has been uoutiuuuusly seudud to liiu buhio crop. (See figure 1 , .t .) 

the pea vines will transfer the nitrogen of the air to the soil in the 
form of nitrates. If rye and peas are to be grown separately, the rye 
should be sown at the rate of 70 pounds and the peas at the rate of 
80 pounds to the acre. 



TIME AND METHOD OF HANDLING. 



Rye and peas for green manure must be grown as a winter crop. 
They should be planted as soon as it is possible to plow the land in 
the fall and should be turned under before the land is too dry for 
plowing in the spring. Usually there is sufficient moisture in the 

178 



14 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. 



soil to allow the planting of green-manure crops by December 1, 
though in some sections and in exceptional seasons the planting may 
be necessarily later. It is not advisable, however, to sow later than 
December 15, for unless the early spring rains are so delayed as to 
facilitate late plowing the green-manure crop will not be of much 
value. This crop should be turned under during early March before 
the soil is too dry for deep plowing. In other words, in order to 
give green-manure crops the maximum period of growth it is nec- 
essary to sow as early as the ground can be worked in the fall and to 
turn under as late as possible in the spring. 

The length of the growing period is regulated very largely by the 




Fig. 3.— Wheat growing ou plat on which Canadian field peas were grown and plowed under in 1908. (See 

figure 1, D.) 

length of the rainy season. The dry condition of the wheat fields 
in the fall permits a plowing of only 4 to 5 inches in depth when 
getting the stubble land in shape for the early planting of green- 
manure crops. The stubble should be double-disked, where possi- 
ble, immediately after the wheat crop is harvested. The disking 
prepares the land to retain the moisture already present and to 
receive the light precipitation coming during the fall months, thus 
putting it in shape for an early shallow plowing and a good seed 
bed. In the spring the land should be plowed deep in order to get 

178 



REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 15 

the growing peas or rye well under, where they will readily decay, 
after which the soil should be well harrowed immediately. 

Effect of Deep Plowing and Green Manuring. 

The effect of deep plowing and green-manure crops upon the 
yield of wheat, as determined by observation and actual experiment 
(see figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5), is shown in Table I, these yields being ob- 
tained at Modesto, Cal., in 1909. 

INCREASED YIELDS. 

Wliile the results indicated are not entirely conclusive, for the 
reason that they are not based upon trials extending over a long 




Fig. 4.— Wheat growing on plat on which rye and vetch were grown and plowed under in 1908. (See 

figure 1, E.) 

series of years, they give an idea of what may be accomplished by 
the deep plowing under of green-manure crops. As indicated, horse 
beans used as green manure appear to give better results than peas. 
However, they have a very thick and heavy stalk, and an enormous 
quantity of seed is required on account of their habit of growing a 
single stalk from each seed. They are not recommended in the place 
of peas, which will give better results in combination with rye as a 
green-manure crop. 

32912— Bui. 178—10 3 



16 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. 



Table I. — Effect of deep plorving and green-manure crops on the yield of u'heat at 

Modesto, Cal., 1909. 



I'receding treatincnt or crop. 



Yield 
per 



Weisht 

per 
bushel. 



Fallow 

Horse beans (turned under) 

Canadian field peas (turned under) 

Wheat (2(i bushels) 

Rye and vetch (turned under) 

Rye (turned under) 



Bushels. 
28.00 
35.33 
33.66 
15.66 
50.66 
51.33 



Pounds. 
61 
61 
60 
60 
60 
61 



The cultivation of the plats indicated in the table was as follows: 
In the fall of 1907 all of the plats were laid out on summer-fallow 




Fig. 5. — Wheat growing on plat on which rye was grown and plowed under in 



(See figure I, F.) 



land and all were plowed to a depth of 6 inches and harrowed. Plat 
1 was allowed to remain fallow. Plat 4 was sown to wheat. Plats 
2, 3, 5, and 6 were sown, as indicated, to horse beans, Canadian 
field peas, rye and vetch, and rye alone. The vetch in plat 5 made 
a very poor stand, while the horse beans and peas made a fairly good 
stand. The stand of rye was excellent. 

In March, 1908, plats 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 were plowed 8 inches deep, 
harrowed, and kept clean throughout the summer and fall. Plat 4, 

178 



BEQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 17 

which yielded at the rate of 26 bushels of wheat to the acre, was 
double-disked immediately after the wheat was taken off. 

The first of December, 1908, all plats were plowed to a depth of 5 
inches and sown to wheat. The resulting yields are given in Table I. 
In two years' time the plat continuously seeded to wheat has pro- 
duced' 41 bushels of wheat. However, the first year's yield, 26 
bushels, was produced after summer fallow and the second year's 
yield, 15.66 bushels, shows a decrease of nearly half. It is quite 
probable that the third year will give a very low yield and that in a 
series of five years the quantity of wheat produced from continuously 
seeded plats would be much smaller than from the other methods of 
cultivation. 

It follows, then, from this experiment, that deeply plowed summer 
fallow will give much better yields than shallow-plowed, continuously 
cropped land. Plats 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 were all plowed at the same 
depth, and the last four were fallowed also after turning under the^ 
green crops. The yields indicate that the addition of organic matter 
(humus) to the soil is beneficial in increasing the production of 
crops and that this increase is proportional to the quantity rather 
than the quality or kind of organic matter added. 

INCREASED PROFITS. 

The yields shown in Table I were obtained in plat work, where the 
varieties received the best possible attention, thus giving higher 
yields than would have been probable under field practice. In our 
estimate of the increase in profits brought about by thorough methods 
of cultivation, the yields are estimated at two-thirds the value given 
in the table. 

The estimate made of increase in net profits is based largely upon 
observation of the general cost of farm work in the State. It may 
not be absolutely accurate in every particular, but it serves well in 
bringing out a comparison of the common methods of cultivation 
employed with the more intensive methods suggested in this paper. 

Approximate cost of cultivation per acre by the common method. 

First plowing (5 inches deep) $1. 25 

Second plowing (5 inches deep) 1. 25 

Two harrowings 20 

2.70 

Approximate cost of cultivation per acre by the improved method. 

Double-disking stubble $0. 50 

First plowing (5 inches deep) 1. 25 

Second plowing (8 inches deep) 2. 00 

Third plowing (4 inches deep) 1. 25 

Three harrowings 30 

Rye seed for green manure 2. 00 

7.30 

178 



18 IMPBOVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. 

The approximate cost of cultivation by the common method is 
$2.70 per acre, as compared with $7.30 per acre by the improved 
method suggested, which gives an increased cost of $4.60 per acre 
for better tillage. As shown in Table I, we have almost doubled the 
yield per acre by the improved methods. Suppose the yields given 
in the table were reduced to two-thirds their value, as previously 
suggested. We still have wheat, following ordinary methods of 
bare fallow, yielding at the rate of 19 bushels per acre, while wheat 
following deep plowing and rye as a green-manure crop yields at the 
rate of 34 bushels per acre. With wheat at $1 a bushel we have 
at a cost of $2.70 per acre produced $19 (not deducting cost of 
harvest, etc.). By better methods at a cost of $7.30 per acre we have 
produced $34 (not deducting cost of harvest, etc.). This gives an 
approximate increase of net profit of $10.40 per acre in favor of the 
better method of tillage. 

Cleaning the Land op Weeds. 

The problem of cleaning the land of weeds reduces itself to sys- 
tematic cultivation and the production of rapidly growing varieties, 
especially as concerns their early development. Where cultivated 
crops are grown it is readily understood that the problem of getting 
rid of weeds is not so difficult as with wheat crops. Results obtained 
lead us to suggest that the following method of cultivation, if rigidly 
enforced, will help in a large measure to reduce the weeds in wheat 
fields : 

(1) Thoroughly double-disk the land as soon as possible after har- 
vest, thus stirring the surface, breaking up the stubble, and covering 
the weed seeds. Then allow the land to stand until the weed seeds 
at the surface have had a chance to germinate after the first rains. 

(2) As soon as the weed seeds are well germinated, plow the land to 
a depth of 4 or 5 inches and harrow well. This should be done, if 
possible, not later than December 15. 

(3) Between March 1 and 15, plow to a depth of from 8 to 12 inches. 
This exposes the weed seeds not turned up by the first plowing. 
Harrow the surface thoroughly immediately after plowing. Whether 
a summer crop is grown or the land is allowed to lie fallow it should 
be kept well cultivated and free from weeds. 

(4) In November, plow to a depth of from 4 to 5 inches and sow the 
wheat about 2 inches deep. 

(5) Just before the grain appears through the surface the land 
should be thoroughly double-harrowed in order to kill all weeds which 
have germinated following the seeding of the wheat. 

(6) The variety of wheat grown should make a rapid, erect, early 
growth in order that it may keep ahead of and choke out all the 
young weeds which are not killed by the final harrowing. (Our 

178 



REQUIKEMENTS FOR PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 19 

investigations tend to prove that the flat-growing types of true 
winter wheat will not succeed in the valley soils of California, espe- 
cially in their present condition of weediness.) 

(7) The young grain should be thoroughly harrowed as soon as the 
ground is dry enough in the early spring, thus covering all of the 
young weeds which have started during the rainy season. 

DEVELOPMENT OF BETTER VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 

The proper cultivation of the soil is essential to the production 
of good yields of all varieties of wheat. It does not follow, however, 
that every variety of wheat will give good yields even on fertile soil 
properly cultivated. This erroneous idea prevails among certain 
grain growers. The United States Department of Agriculture has 
tested hundreds of varieties of wheat in different sections of the 
country and has found that comparatively few of these varieties are 
adapted to the prevailing climatic and soil conditions of each sec- 
tion. Varieties which produce good yields in one section of the 
country are found to be absolute failures in other sections. 

Variety Tests in California. 

Although a large number of varieties of wheat have been tested 
in California by this Department during the past five years, very 
few of these are adapted to the climatic and soil conditions of this 
State. California presents such a variety of climates that a type 
of wheat which may give excellent results in one section of the 
State does poorly in another. Our investigations thus far are not 
of long enough duration to enable us to state definitely the variety 
of wheat best adapted to any particular locality of the State. How- 
ever, the results indicate that for the localities in which tests have 
been made we have now varieties which are better adapted to the 
prevailing conditions than those commonly grown by the farmers. 
We are able, therefore, with a fair degree of certainty, to recommend 
varieties for a large portion of the State. 

Table II presents a list of some of the varieties of wheat which 
have been grown in California in connection with the investigations 
of the Department. The average yields to the acre, the number of 
days required to reach maturity, and the fruiting period (the number 
of days between the time of blossoming and the time of ripening) are 
based upon the plat experiments continued for three years in the 
San Joaquin Valley. The results obtained from the same varieties 
when grown in the Sacramento Valley compare very favorably with 
those indicated in this table. A few of these varieties are proving 
to be well adapted to both the localities in which they have been 
grown. 

178 



20 IMFEOVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. 

Table II. — Results of variety tests of wheat in the San Joaquin Valley, California. 



Grain 
Investi- 
gations 
No. 



1698 

3019 

2511-2 

2921 
2986 
2210 
2227 

3018 
1437 
2988 
1697 
2397 

1596 

2398 
1442 
2246 

1593 
2235 
1597 
2989 

2873 

2888 
1970 
2991 
29S4 

2983 
2235-1 

2899 

1743 
1561 
1558 
2247 

2985 

2404 

2096 

2592 



Variety. 



Allora 

Australian . 
Bl^Noir... 



Bolo Blanco 

California Gem. 

Cap Sheaf 

Chul 



Club 

Crimean 

Dietz Amber. 
Early Baart.. 
Erivan 



Fretes. 



Galgalos . . 
Kharkof. ., 
Kubanka. 



Marouani 

....do 

Medeah 

Minnesota 

No. 66. 
Minnesota 

No. 163. 

Filipino 

Propo 

Purple Straw . . 
Saumur de 

Mars. 

Chiddam 

Selection from 

Marouani. 
Selection from 

Chul. 

Sonora 

Theiss 

Turkey 

Velvet Don. .. 



W a s h i n gton 
Bluestem. 

Yantagbay 

Yellow Ghar- 

novka. 
[Unnamed] . . . 



Manner of 

early 

growth. 



Aver- 
age 
number 
of days 
matur- 
ing. 



Erect 

Semi-erect 
..do 



Erect 

Semi-erect 
Spreading. 
Erect 



...do 

Spreading. 

-do 

Erect 

..do 



Semi-erect 

Spreading. 

..do 

Erect 



..do 

..do 

..do 

Spreading. 

..do 



Erect 

Semi-erect 

..do 

..do 



..do.. 
Erect. 



.do. 



..do 

Spreading. 

..do 

Erect 



Semi-erect 

Erect 

-.do 

Spreading. 



180 
194 
161 

191 
198 
189 
187 

165 
199 
194 
162 
192 

193 

191 
193 
170 

185 
184 
196 
203 



195 
192 
182 
190 

191 
178 

152 

186 
201 
199 
185 

170 

184 

185 

193 



Aver- 
age 
number 
of days 

in 
fruiting 
period 



Quality of 
grain. 



39 



Starchy 

...do 

Medium 

starchy. 

Starchy". 

....do 

....do 

Glutinous, 

spotted. 

Starchy 

....do 

....do 

....do 

Glutinous, 

spotted. 
Medium 

starchy. 

do 

Starchy 

Glutinous, 

spotted. 

do 

do 

do 

Medium 

starchy. 
do 



Very starchy. 

Starchy 

....do 

....do 



....do 

Glutinous, 

spotted. 
....do 



44 Starchy. 

36 do. 

39 
38 



do 

Glutinous 

spotted. 
Starchy 



37 \ Glutinous, 
spotted. 
..do 



Starchy . 



Nonshatter- 
ing character. 



Good 

Fairly good. 
...do 



Good 

Fair 

. ...do.... 
Very good. 



Good 

Fairlv good 

Fair." 

Fairly good. 
Good 



Fairly good 



Good 

Fairly good 
Very good. . 



.do. 
.do. 
do. 



Fair. 



.do. 



Very good.. 
Fairly good 

Fair 

Poor 



...do 

Very good. . 

...do 



Fairly good. 

...do 

...do 

Very good... 

Fairly good. 

Very good... 

do 

Fairly good. 



Average Weight 

rate of per 

yield per bushel, 

acre. 1909. 



Bushels. 
38.08 
35.96 
48.11 

58.39 
29.78 
32.49 
44.56 

13.98 
26.55 
25.68 
24.61 
39.74 

46.49 

34.94 
38.66 
18.82 

24.82 
39.99 
23.03 
29.00 

19.71 

29.41 
41.18 
44.99 
50.92 

51.66 
53.76 

45.33 

34.77 
19.68 
32.11 
23.53 

24.29 

57.28 

24.90 

41.99 



Pounds. 
61 
61 

58 

62 
61 
60 
63 

59 
63 
62 
63 
61 

63 

61 
62 
63 

62 
62 
62 
61 



Selecting Varieties for California. 



In selecting a variety of wheat which is better adapted to Cali- 
fornia conditions than the commonly grown varieties a number of 
matters must be taken into consideration. 



climate and soil. 



The climate and soil of the locality in the State where the variety 
is to be tested are both important factors limiting the distribution of 
a variety. Some varieties will do well on light soils with a small 
amount of precipitation, while other varieties require a heavier soil 
with a larger amount of moisture. 

178 



REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 



21 



HABIT OF GROWTH. 

The effect of the character of the early growth of a variety on its 
struggle with weeds is very important. (Figs. 6 and 7.) In the valley 
sections of California, where the temperature does not fall much 
below freezing during 
the winter months, 
varieties of vigorous, 
upright growth are 
needed in order that 
they may keep ahead 
of and choke out the 
weeds that start at 
this time. Varieties 
with a spreading habit 
of early growth may 
be adapted to moun- 
tain sections of high 
elevation, where there 
is a good deal of snow 
during the av i n t e r 
months and the tem- 
perature falls consid- 
erably below the 
freezing point, thus 
preventing weed 
growth until spring. 

NONSHATTERING HABIT. 

The nonshattering 
character of the head 
of wheat is a very 
important factor m 
some sections of Cali- 
fornia, as heavy wind- 
storms often occur 
after the grain is ripe 
and before it is har- 
vested. These winds 
shatter out a great 
deal of grain from varieties 
chaff. 




Fig. 6.— Representative plants of six varieties of wtieat from uniform 
plats planted November 21, 1908, at Modesto, Cal., showing their 
comparative development on May 1, 1909: 1596, Fretes; 1698, AUora; 
2397, Erivan; 3019, Australian; 2227, Chul; 1558, Turkey. 



which have not a very close-fitting 
The method of harvesting also has a tendency to shatter out 
much of the grain where it is not closely held by the chaff, owing to 
the fact that the crop is often allowed to stand for weeks after it is ripe. 

178 



22 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. 



MILLING QUALITY. 

The milling quality is perhaps the most important factor to be con- 
sidered in California. On account of the poor quality of the commonly 
grown varieties the California millers are unable to make good flour 
from these wheats when using them alone. Better milling wheat is 

imported from Kan- 
sas and other States 
of the Middle West to 
blend with California 
wheat in the produc- 
tion of flour. From 
one-third to one-half 
of the blended wheat 
is made up of the 
Turkey variety. It 
is desired to make 
unnecessary this im- 
portation by the pro- 
duction in California 
of varieties equally as 
good. The flour val- 
ue of wheat is judged 
by both the quantity 
and the quality of the . 
product. In order to 
produce wheat of su- 
perior miUing quality 
it is essential that 
varieties be grown 
which will give more 
and better protein to 
the acre. The qual-/ 
ity of the protein de^' 
pends on the quality 
of the gluten. 

OTHER REQUISITES. 




The ability of a 



Fig. 7. — RepresL'ulalive plants of six additional varieties of wheat from 
uniform plats planted November 21, 1908, at Modesto, Cal., showing 
their comparative development on May 1, 1909: 1437, Crimean; 2984, Variety tO yield Well 
Saumur de Mars; 2511-2, Abyssinian; 3019, Australian; 1697, Early -iijiflpr DrODCr envi- 
Baart; 2921, Bolo Blanco; 2398, Galgalos. K 

ronment, the posses- 
sion of a stiff or a weak straw, and the presence or absence of beards 
are all factors that need no further explanation, but must all be con- 
sidered in the selection of a variety. Rust resistance is an important 
factor, especially in the coastal sections of California. Beardless 
varieties are often desired by the grower, as he may wish, on account of 

178 



REQUIREMENTS FOIt PRODUCING PROFITABLE CROPS. 23 

occasional seasonal disadvantages, to cut the crop for hay instead of 

allowing it to stand for grain. In such a case beardless wheats may be 

of more value tlian bearded ones, though this is not an important matter. 

Seed Improvement by the Grower. 

It is very important that the grain growers of California practice 
better methods of seed selection. 

SMALL COMPARED WITH LARGE SEED. 

The idea which prevails among some growers that small, light seed 
will produce as 'good crops as large, heavy seed is erroneous. In some 
instances, under very favorable conditions and if sown at the same rate 
to the acre according to weight, the small, light grains produce as 
heavy yields as the large, heavy grains, but the grain is of an inferior 
grade. The reason for the equality in yield to the acre is largely due 
to the fact that in the case of the seeding of small, light grains there 
are many more plants to a given area than when it is seeded with an 
equal weight of large, heavy grains of the same variety. 

Heavy, plump grain produces stronger and more vigorous plants 
than light, shriveled grain. The reason for this is that the plump 
grain contains a larger amount of food for the very young plant. The 
light, shriveled grain produces weak plants. This is a fact well under- 
stood by all who are endeavoring to improve their cro])s by careful and 
practical selection of seed. 

It behooves the grain grower, then, to have at his disposal a good 
fanning mill with which he can grade his seed, blowing out all light, 
sliriveled grain and separating the large grains from the small. An- 
other advantage in the use of the fanning mill is the separation of the 
weed seed from the wheat. 

THE SEED PLAT. 

A practical method of improvement of seed, which should be used 
by every wheat producer in California, is wdiat is known as the seed 
plat. This method is simple and easily applied. First, select from 
the general field at ripening time a large quantity of good heads 
of a single desirable form. Only heads from the best plants should 
be selected, and they should be from places where the soil is uni- 
form with other parts of the field and not from an especially fertile 
spot or at the edge of the field. The heads should be thrashed by 
hand and the seed sown on well-prepared land free from volunteer 
grain. This crop should be harvested and thrashed separately from 
the main crop, care being taken that the machinery used is free 
from all other grains which might cause a mixture. The first por- 
tion thrashed should be rejected, as it is most likely to contain such 
a mixture. The grain from the seed plat should be used, as far as 
it will go, for the general crop the sycceeding year. If there is a 
considerable acreage it may be necessary to continue the seed plat for 
a second year in order to obtain sufficient seed for the main crop. In 
order to effect permanent improvement the grower should make these 



24 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. 



selections of the best heads every yenr and sow them on the seed plat 
as sugorested. 

TWO NEW VARIETIES OF WHEAT ADAPTED TO CALIFORNIA 

CONDITIONS. 

Of the many new varieties of wheat tested for yield and nitrogen 
content, the Chul (G. I. No. 2227) and the Fretes (G. I. No. 1596) have 
proved superior to the White Australian and Club varieties grown 
in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys and are recommended 
for trial by farmers. 

THE CHUL VARIETY. 
Origin and History.« 
Chul wheat (fig. 8) was received by the Office of Seed and Plant 
Introduction, December 1, 1902, from Dzhizak, a town about 100 




Fig. 8.— Chul wheat (G. I. No. 2227) growing at Modesto, Cal., in 1909. Yield to the acre, 53.33 bushels. 

miles north of Samarkand, Turkestan. It was obtained through 
the Samarkand representatives of Mr. H. W. Durrschmidt by Mr. 
E. A. Bessey, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, August 30, 1902. 
The following notes concerning it were secured by Mr. Bessey: 

Chul is grown on the steppes of Russia without irrigation. The grains are hard, 
but it is not a diu'um wheat. This variety yields two harvests a year, for it can be 



" Bulletin 6(5, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905, p. 250. 
178 



TWO NEW VARIETIES ADAPTED TO CALIFORNIA, 25 

sown as either a winter or spring wheat. If the former, the liarvest comes in July; 
if the latter, the harvest comes in September. If sown in the spring, it is sown just as 
soon as the snow melts. The spring sowing is most certain to yield a good crop, for the 
fall sowing must depend upon the rather uncertain snows. This seed, however, is 
from the fall-sown seed. It is selected from over 1,000 poods offered for sale, and is 
remarkably clean and free from foreign seeds for this region. 

Introduction into California. 

Seed of Chiil wheat was first distributed by the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture in 1903 to a few farmers in CaUfornia. Since 
1903 small ciuantities have been sent out from time to time for the pur- 
pose of testing its adaptability. In 1904 and 1905 a variety test was 
commenced in Stanislaus and Sutter counties. This test was in direct 
charge of an officer of the Department, and has continued up to the 
present time. A limited distribution of improved seed of Cahfornia- 
grown Chul wheat has been made to reliable farmers who are desirous 
of improving the yield and quality of their crop. 

Description. 

The Chul is an early, erect, and vigorous variety which may be 
sown as late as February 15 and mature a good crop. It grows to a 
height of from 2^ to 4 feet and stools freely. The heads are medium 
long, tapering, and bearded. This variety has a very close-fitting 
chaff and does not shatter readily. As originally introduced it 
contained two forms, the one having white chafl^, while the other 
produces red chaff. The kernels are large, long, and translucent in 
character. They are harder and more glutinous than those of the 
White Australian wheat. As originally introduced there were also 
two types of kernels, the one type being amber in color, the other 
dark red or reddish amber. 

A separation of the red chaff form was made in 1905 at the De- 
partment's Plant Introduction Garden at Chico, Cal. Since that 
time the Department has separated the two forms represented by 
both colors in the original seed. This has been done by starting 
with single plants which were each characteristic of the form desired. 

Yields Obtained. 

Very promising results have been reported from California to this 
Department by farmers who have given Chul wheat a trial. In 
variety tests made by the Department it has made a very favorable 
showing, excelling the commonly grown varieties in yield to the acre 
in some sections of the State. 

The average yield to the acre of Chul wheat for 1907, 1908, and 
1909, as compared with the White Australian, is as follows: 

Chul(G. I. No. 2227) 44.5 bushels. 

Australian (G. I. No. 3019) 35.9 bushels. 

178 



26 IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. 

Milling Quality. 

The milling quality of Chiil wheat is superior to that of either the 
Club or the White Australian wheat, and for this reason this variety 
is of much value to the State of California. As previously shown, the 
common California wheats do not in themselves produce a high 
grade of flour. 

The Department has made milling and baking tests of Chul and 
White Australian wheats grown at Modesto, Cal., in 1908. The 
results of this test indicate that Chul wheat produces from 100 
pounds of grain about 10 pounds more flour than the Australian, 
and that it mills very much like Turkey wheat. The flour from the^ \ 
Chul is darker than that from either Australian or Fretes wheat, I 
which in itself indicates that the Chul variety is stronger in gluten. / 

In the baking test Chul flour required more water to the loaf than ' 
that of the Australian variety and produced loaves of fair color and 
texture. 

In August, 1909, the Oakdale Milling Company, Oakdale, Cal.^ x 
made a milling test of Chul wheat, crop of 1909, grown at Modesto, \ 
Cal. This test gave 55 per cent wet gluten for the Chul, while similar \ 
tests showed only 10 to 38 per cent in the White Australian. Mr. 
Haslacher, manager of this company, was very enthusiastic over this 
variety and anxious that farmers should secure seed. 



THE FRETES VARIETY. 

Origin and History. « 

Seed of Fretes wheat (fig. 9) was received by the Office of Seed 
and Plant Introduction of the United States Department of Agri- 
culture on September 26, 1901, from El-Outaya, Constantine, Algeria. 
It was obtained by Messrs. D. G. Fairchild and C. S. Scofield, who 
make the following notes on it: 

This variety, sometimes called Freitiss, is one of the few soft wheats grown in 
Algeria. It is particularly noted for its early maturity and is often extensively 
planted in the Sahara Desert in seasons when the winter rains occur so late that the 
durum varieties usually grown would not have time to mature. When planted in 
November, as it is in Algeria, at the same time with durum varieties, it is said to ripen 
two months in advance of them. The seed obtained was grown on the rather salty 
deiSert sands in the vicinity of El-Outaya, north of Biskra, and watered with somewhat 
alkaline but still drinkable irrigation water. The variety is said to have originated 
from a shipment of Russian wheat which was made into Algeria at the time of a famine 
many years ago. Its early-maturing qualities attracted attention, and it has been 
cultivated in small quantities by the Arabs ever since. The seed obtained is from the 
farm of Mr. Charles B. des Places. 



J 



a Bulletin 66, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905, p. 151. 
178 



TWO NEW VAKIETIES ADAPTED TO CALIFORNIA, 



27 



Description. 

Fretes wheat is an early, erect, vigorous variety and should be sown 
not later than December 15. It grows to a height of from 3 to 4| 
feet and stools well. The heads are of medium length, tapering, and 
bearded, with white chaff. The chaff of Fretes wheat does not inclose 
the grain as closely as tliat of the Chul variety, but still holds the seed 
fairly well. The kernels are medium large and plump, of medium 
length, and a reddish-amber color. They are softer than those of 




Fig. 9.— Fretes wheat (G. I. No. 159G) growing at Modesto, Cal., in 1909. Yield to the acre, 5i) bushd . 

Chul wheat. Single-plant selections have been made which are very 
promising. 

Yields Obtained. 

Fretes wheat was distributed by the Department to a few farmers in 
California as early as 1902, and very good reports on its adaptability 
have been received. In 1904 and 1905 the Department commenced a 
variety test of this wheat on the experimental grounds in Sutter and 
Stanislaus counties. The observations made on the adaptability of 
this wheat to California conditions indicate that it will produce a 
larger yiekl to the acre than either the White Australian or Club 
wheats and that it is superior as a milling wheat. 

178 



28 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. 



The average yield to the acre of Fretes wheat at Modesto, Cal., for 
1907, 1908, and 1909, as compared with the White Austrahan (fig. 10), 
is as follows : 

Fretes (G. I. No. 1596) 46.5 bushels. 

Australian (G. I. No. 3019) 35.9 bushels. 

Milling Quality. 

Milling tests of this variety have been made by the United States 
Department of Agriculture and by the Oakdale Milhng Company. As 
a result of the test of the grain grown in California during 1908, made 
by the Department's laboratory at Fargo, N. Dak., we find this 
variety superior to the Club as a flour producer. It is also slightly 
superior to the White Australian. In this test it was discovered that 




Fig. 10. 



-White Australian wheat (G. I. No. 3019) growing at Modesto, Cal., in 1909. Yield to the acre, 

44 bashels. 



there was a slight increase in the quantity of flour produced from 100 
pounds of the Fretes over that produced from the same quantity of 
Australian wheat. It milled very much like the Australian. Ap- 
proximately the same quantity of water was required to produce a 
loaf of bread made from this flour as from the Australian. The loaves 
were slightly smaher but heavier than those baked from the Australian. 
The color and texture were fairly good. As with the Chul wheat, a 



178 



TWO NEW VARIETIES ADAPTED TO CALIFORNIA. 



29 



milling test of the 1909 crop of the Fretes was made by the Oakdale 
Milling Company, Oakdale, Cal. This test indicated that the P'retes 
milled easily. It also possessed a 40 per cent wet-gluten content as 
compared with the Australian samples received and tested by the 
company, which contained from 10 to 38 per cent of wet gluten. 

PURE SEED OF THE CHUL AND FRETES VARIETIES. 

From the foregoing facts there can be little doubt that the improved 
types of the Chul and Fretes varieties are of great value to California. 
Much care, however, should be exercised by the growers in securing 
pure seed. 

It is reported that Chul wheat is being grown in quantity by a few 
farmers in the Sacramento Valley from seed introduced into California 
by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1903. It is also 
reported that this wheat is used to good effect in blending with the 
common wheats in the production of flour. Samples of the 1909 crop, 
which have been received, show that this wheat is mixed with other 
varieties. This is probably due to lack of care on the part of growers 
in keeping the variety pure. This mixture is an inferior grade of seed 
and is not desirable for the farmer wishing to start with pure seed of 
the Chul variety. 

The Office of Grain Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry 
can usually supply small quantities of pure seed of these and other 
varieties. 

PROTEIN CONTENT AS AFFECTED BY TIME OF SEEDING. 

Observations in California indicate that the length of the growing 
and fruiting periods of a variety of wheat controls, to a considerable 
degree, the percentage of protein contained. Long growing and 
fruitmg periods produce grains lower in protein content than short 
growing and fruiting periods. An effort was made during the past 
year to determine the eft'ect of the length of these periods upon the 
protein content of the Chul and Fretes varieties sown early and late. 
The results obtained are given in Table III. 



Table III. — Effect of the length of groiving and fruiting periods on the protein content 
of the Chul and Fretes wheat varieties. 



Grain Investigations No. 


Variety. 


Length 

of 
growing 
period. 


Length 

fruiting 
period. 


Protein.a 


Yield to 
the acre. 


2227 


Chul 

do 


Days. 
171 
151 

177 
152 


Days. 
46 

41 
45 
40 


Per cent. 
11.06 
12.43 
10.94 
14.08 


Bushels. 
53. 33 


2227 


52.89 


1596 


Fretes 


56.00 


1596 


do 


45. 53 









o The percentages of protein were obtained by multiplying the percentage of nitrogen by 5.7. 
178 



30 IMPKOVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA. 

As indicated in Table III, a higher percentage of protein is pro- 
duced in a short growing and fruiting period than in a long period. 
The yields of Chul wheat are nearly equal, while there is some differ- 
ence in those of the Fretes. In order to shorten the periods and pro- 
duce grain rich in protein, the seeding should be done as late as 
possible in the fall. The Chul variety is especially adapted to late 
seeding for the reason that it is a vigorous grower and ripens early. 
Excellent results have been obtained from the Chul when sown as 
late as February 25, but usually the seeding should be done between 
November 15 and December 25. The Fretes seed should be in the 
ground by December 15. The above dates refer to the time of seed- 
ing in the San Joaquin Valley. These wheats may be sown a month 
later in the Sacramento Valley and still give good results under ordi- 
nary conditions. 

SUMMARY. 

Wheat yields in California are low and the quality poor. Experi- 
ments have been conducted to discover the causes and remedies. 
Two remedies are proposed in this bulletin, namely, better cultiva- 
tion methods and better varieties. 

The cultivation methods commonly practiced by the wheat farmers 
of California are unsatisfactory. They consist in the continuous 
cropping of wheat and barley upon soil which receives only a very 
shallow cultivation. 

The farmer removes the plant food from the soil without adding 
anything to take its place. This is residting in many localities in a 
depleted condition of the soil and in unprofitable crops. 

Wlien wheat was at first produced, good crops were secured by 
very shallow plowing, broadcasting the seed, and harrowing it into 
the soil. Very little attempt was made to secure pure seed or to 
practice the careful grading of wheat. 

Some important changes have taken place, among which are (1) 
the replacing of the header and stationary thrasher by the combined 
harvester and (2) the practice of summer-fallowing the land. A 
reduced size of farms and an increased depth of plowing occur in 
individual instances. 

In many sections of the State there has resulted from the original 
methods a soil depleted in humus and nitrates and foul with weeds, 
which fails to produce profitable crops. There are three chief 
requirements in restoring the production of profitable crops. These 
are (1) smaller farms, personally supervised; (2) improved methods, 
including deeper plowing, increasing the humus and nitrates of the 
soil, and cleaning the land of weeds; and (3) the development of 
better varieties, 

178 



SUMMARY. 31 

Soil humus antl nitrates are easily increased by turnino; under 
green-manure crops. Crops proving to be of value as green manure 
are Canadian field peas and Abruzzes rye. Green-manure crops 
should not be sown later than December f5. The stubble should be 
double-disked immediately after the wheat crop is harvested, fol- 
lowed by a shallow plowing as early as possible in the fall. These 
crops should be turned under during early March before the soil is 
too dry for deep plowing, which is necessary in order to get the 
growing peas and rye well under, after which the soil should be har- 
rowed immediately. 

The good effect of deep plowing and green manuring is proved in 
actual experiment by increased yields and profits. 

A method of cultivation whereby the land may be cleaned of weeds 
should be employetl. 

A large number of wheat varieties have been tested in California in 
an attempt to find better ones. Factors entering into the selection 
of varieties for California are the climate and soil of the locality 
where the variety is to be tested, the habit of growth of the variety, 
its nonshattering character, milling quality, yield, strength of straw, 
the presence or absence of beards, and rust resistance. 

It is important that grain growers practice better methods of seed 
selection. The seed should be graded with a fanning mill. A prac- 
tical method of improvement is the use of what is known as the "seed 
plat." 

The Chul and Fretes wheats are new varieties adapted to California 
conditions. In some sections of the State these wheats have excelled 
the commonly grown varieties in yield to the acre. 

Milling and baking tests of the Chul and Fretes varieties have been 
made which indicate that they are superior to Australian and Club 
wheats in these respects. 

Much care should be exercised by the growers in securing pure 
seed of these wheats. 

Observations indicate that the length of the growing and fruiting 
periods of a variety of wheat controls to a considerable degree the 
percentage of protein contained. Short growing and fruiting periods 
produce grain with a high percentage of protein. 

The Chul and Fretes varieties are adapted to comparatively late 
seeding, which is favorable to a high percentage of protein in the 
grain produced. 

178 



INDEX. 

Pago. 
Abruzzes rye. See Rye, Abruzzes. 

Algeria, original home of Fretes wheat 20 

AUora wheat. See Wheat, Allora. 
Australian wheat. -S^e Wheat, Australian. 

Beans, horse, value as green-manure crop on wheat lands in California 15. 16 

Beardless wheat. See Wheat, beardless. 

Bessey, E. A., importation of Chul wheat 24 

Ble Noir. See Wheat, Ble Noir. 

Bolo Blanco wheat. See Wheat, Bolo Blanco. 

California Gem wheat. See Wheat, California Gem. 

wheat. -See Wheat, California. 
Canadian field peas. -See Peas, Canadian field. 
Cap Sheaf wheat. See Wheat, Cap Sheaf. 
Chiddam wheat. See Wheat, Chiddam. 
Chul wheat. See Wheat, Chul. 

Climate, importance in selecting wheat varieties for California 20 

Club wheat. See Wheat, Club. 
Crimean wheat. See Wheat, Crimean. 
Dietz Amber wheat. See WTieat, Dietz Amber. 
Early Baart wheat. See Wheat, Early Baart. 
Eri van wheat. ^See Wheat, Eri van. 

Fairchild, D. G., importation of Fretes wheat seed 26 

Fallow, summer, effect on wheat yield, experiments in California 9, 16, 17, 30 

Fanning mill. See Mill, fanning. 

Farms, owners, personal supervision, remedy for faulty methods of wheat cul- 
ture in California 10-11 

small, remedy for faulty methods of wheat culture in California 10-11 

Filipino wheat. See Wheat, Filipino. 

Flour, Chul, Club, Fretes, and WTiite Australian wheats, baking tests 26, 28, 31 

value of wheat, relation of protein content 22 

Freitiss, name for Fretes wheat 26 

Fretes wheat. See \Mieat, Fretes. 
Galgalos wheat. See Wheat, Galgalos. 

Gluten, content in wheat varieties, valye 22, 26, 29 

relation to yield and quality of protein in wheat 22 

Grain, production of crops, requirements in California 10-24, 30 

Green manure. See Manure, green. 

Harvester, combined, replacing of header and stationary thrasher, effect on 

wheat crop in California 8-9, 30 

Header, replacing by combined harvester, effect on wheat crop in California. . 8-9, 30 

Heads, wheat, nonshattering, desirable quality in California 21, 31 

Hilgard, E. W., citation of Wollny on the effect of humus on soil temperature. . 9 

Horse beans. See Beans, horse. 

178 33 



34 IMPRCVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CROP IN CALIFORNIA, 

Page. 

Humus, addition to soil by green-manure crops 12-15 

deficiency in wheat lands, California, causes 9-10 

effects on soil 9, 12 

improvement of sandy lands 12 

Introduction to bulletin 7-8 

Kharkof wheat. See Wheat, Kharkof. 
Kubanka wheat. See Wheat, Kubanka. 

Lands, wheat, ( 'alifornia, cleaning of weeds, directions 18-19 

Legumes. See Manure, green, and nitrogen. 

Manure, green crops, California, effect on yield of wheat 15-18, 31 

seeding and handling, directions 12-18, 31 

time and method of handling 13-15 

Marouani wheat. See Wheat, Marouani. 
Medeah wheat. See Wheat, Medeah. 

Mill, fanning, necessity for cleaning and grading wheat 23, 31 

Minnesota No. 66 wheat. See Wheat, Minnesota No. 6G. 

163 wheat. See Wheat, Minnesota No. 163. 

Modesto, Cal., experiments with deep plowing and green manuring 15-18 

Nitrates, addition to soil by leguminous crops 13 

deficiency in wheat lands of California 9 

soil, necessity in wheat production 9-10 

Nitrogen, addition to soil by green-manure crops 12-15 

Oakdale Milling Company, milling tests of wheat varieties, 1909 2G, 28-29 

Peas and rye, use as green-manure crops 13-15 

( 'anadian field, value as green-manure crop 13, 16, 31 

seed , quantity per acre for green manure 13 

Plowing, deep, effect on yield of wheat in California 15-18, 31 

wheat lands, necessity, importance, and results 11-12, 15-18 

Propo wheat. See Wheat, Propo. 

Protein, content in wheat, effect of time of seeding in California 29-30, 31 

relation to flour value 22 

production per acre in wheat, relation of quality of gluten 22 

Purple Straw wheat. See WTieat, Purple Straw. 

Rust, resistance of wheat, important quality in California 22 

Rye, Abruzzes, value as green-manure crop 13, 31 

and peas, use as green-manure crops on wheat lands, California 13-15 

vetch, use as green-manure crops on wheat lands, California 16 

seed, quantity per acre for green manure 13 

Sacramento Valley, California, green-manure crops adaptable 13 

wheat variety tests 19 

San Joaquin Valley, ( 'alifornia, green-manure crops adaptable 13 

wheat variety tests 19 

Saumur de Mars wheat. See Wheat, Saumur de Mars. 

Scofield, ('. S., importation of Fretes wheat seed 26 

Seed, peas, quantity per acre for green manure 13 

rye, quantity per acre for green manure 13 

selection, wheat, importance in California 23-24 

wheat, grading necessary in careful selection 23 

improvement by better methods of selection 23 

large and small, comparative value 23 

plat, directions for planting and use 23-24 

purity, importance to growers in California 29 

178 



INDEX. 35 

I'ago. 

Seeding, peas and rye, for green-manure crop, directions 13-15 

wheat, time, effect on protein content in California 29-30, 31 

Soil, ( 'alifornia wheat lands, deficiency in humus and nitrates 9-10 

importance in selecting wheat varieties for ( alifornia 20 

improvement by addition of humus and nitrogen 12-15 

temperature, effect of humus 9 

Sonora wheat. See Wheat, Sonora. 
Summer-fallow. See Fallow, summer. 
Temperature, soil. See Soil, temperature. 

Tenants, cropping methods injurious to wheat i'arn.s in ( 'alifornia 11 

Theiss wheat. See Wheat, Theiss. 

Thrasher, stationary, replacing by combined harvester, effect on wheat crop in 

California 8, 30 

Turkestan, original home of Chul wheat 24 

Turkey wheat. See Wheat, Turkey. 

Varieties, wheat, testing and selection for California 19-23 

Velvet Don wheat. See Wheat, Velvet Don. 

Vetch and rye as green-manure crops for wheat lands, California IG 

Washington Bluestem wheat. See Wheat, Washington Bluestem. 

Weeds, bad effect on wheat crop in California 10 

wheat lands, California, causes and remedies 10, 18-19 

Wheat, AUora, test in California 20 

Australian, test in California 20 

beardless, desirable for hay 22 

Ble Noir, test in California 20 

Bolo Blanco, test in California 20, 22 

California, damage by weeds 10, 18 

Gem, test in California 20 

requirements for profitable production 10-24 

variety tests 19-20, 25-27 

yields, decrease, causes and remedies 8-19 

Cap Sheaf, test in California 2U 

Chiddam, test in California 20 

Chul, description 25 

flour, baking tests 26 

introduction into California 25 

milling quality 26 

origin and history 24-25 

seed, purity, importance to growers in California 29 

separation of variety into two forms 25 

test in California 20, 21, 25-26 

yields obtained in California 25 

Club, test in California 20, 28 

Crimean, test in California 20, 22 

cultivation, California, changes from original methods 8-9 

cost per acre, comparison of methods 17-18 

directions for cleaning land of weeds 18-19 

faulty methods and results 8-10 

original methods 8 

past and present methods, bad results 9-10 

smaller farms and personal supervision by own- 
ers, importance 10-11 

178 



36 IMPKOVEMENT OF THE WHEAT CEOP IN CALIFORNIA. 

Page. 

Wheat, culture, improved methods 11-19 

development of better varieties for California 19-24 

Dietz Amber, test in California 20 

earliness, importance in checking weeds in California 21 

Early Baart, test in California 20, 22 

Erivan, test in California 20, 21 

Filijiino, test in California 20 

flour, value, relation of protein content 22 

Fretes, description 27 

flour, baking tests 28, 31 

milling quality 28-29, 31 

origin and history 26 

seed, purity, importance to growers in California 29 

test in California 20, 21, 27-29 

yields obtained in California 27-28 

Galgalos, test in California " 20, 22 

gluten content, value 22, 26, 29 

grading, necessity of fanning mill 23, 31 

habits of growth desirable for California 21 

heads, nonshattering, desirable character for California 21 

Kharkof, test in California 20 

Kubanka, test in California 20 

lands, California, effect of deep plowing and green maiiuring 15-18 

green-manure crops, time and method of handling... 13-15 

improvement by green-manure crops 12-18 

Marouani, test in California 20 

Medeah, test in California 20 

milling quality, importance in California 22 

Minnesota No. 66, test in California 20 

163, test in California 20 

profits, effect of green -manure crops and deep plowing in California 17-18 

Propo, test in California 20 

protein content, effect of time of seeding in California 29-30, 31 

relation to flour value 22 

short season and late seeding favorable in Califor- 
nia 29-30, 31 

Purple Straw, test in California 20 

rust resistance, importance in California 22 

Saumur de Mars, test in California 20, 22 

seed selection, importance in California 23-24 

See also Seed. 

Sonora, test in California 20 

Theiss, test in California 20 

Turkey, blending with California wheats in milling 7, 22 

test in California 20, 21 

varieties, new, adapted to California 24-30 

selection for California 20-23 

testing in California 19-20, 25, 27 

Velvet Don, test in California 20 

Washington Bluestem, test in California 20 

White Australian, milling quality, comparison with Chul and Fretes 

wheats 26, 28 

178 



INDEX. 37 

I'age. 
Wheat, White Auwtralian, yield, comparison with (liul and Fretea wheats in 

California 25, 27-28 

Yantagbay, test in California 20 

Yellow Gharnovka, test in California 20 

yield, California, decrease, causes and remedies 8-19 

effect of green-manure crops and deep plowing 15-18 

White Australian wheat. See Wheat, ^^'hite Australian. 

W'ollny, statement of effect of humus on soil temperature 9 

Yantagbay wheat. See Wheat, Yantagbay. 
Yellow Gharnovka wheat. See ^^'heat, Yellow Gharnovka. 
Yield, wheat. Sec Wheat, yield. 
178 

o 



[Continued from page 2 of cover.] 

No. 96. Tobacco Breeding. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

97. Seeds and Plants Imported. InventoryNo.il. 1907. Price, 15 cents 

98. Soy Bean Varieties. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

99. Quick Method for Determination of Moisture in Grain. 1907 Price 5 cents 

101. Contents of and Index to Bulletins Nos. 1 to 100. 1907. Price 15 cents 

102. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Price, 15 cents ' 

103. Dry Farming in the Great Basin. 1907. Price, 10 cents 

104. The Use of Feldspathic Rocks as Fertilizers. 1907. Price 5 cents 

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107. American Root Drugs. 1907. Price, 15 cents. ' 

lOS. The Cold Storage of Small Fruits. 1907. Price, 15 cents 

109. American Varieties of Garden Beans. 1907. Price, 25 cents 

110. Cranberry Diseases. 1907. Price, 20 cents. 

Wl Suprarenal Glands in Physiological Testing of Drug Plants. 1907 Price 10 cents 

113. Tolerance of Various Plants for Salts in Alkali Soils 1907. Price 5 cents' 

114. Sap-Rot and Other Diseases of the Red Gum. 1907. Price, 15 cents 

ilr' jD'smfection of Sewage for Protection of Public Water Supplies. 1907. Price, 10 cents, 
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120. Production of Easter Lily Bulbs in the United States. 190S. Price, 10 cents 

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IV.- ^^irly^Top, a Disease of Sugar Beets. 1908. Price, 15 cents. 

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128. Egyptian Cotton in the Southwestern United States. 1908. Price, 15 cents 

129. Barium, a Cause of the Loco-Weed Disease. 1908. Price, 10 cents 

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131. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 10 cents. 

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138. Production of Cigar-Wrapper Tobacco in Connecticut Valley. 1908. Price, 15 cents. 

139. American Medicmal Barks. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

140. "Spineless" Prickly Pears. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

141. Miscellaneous Papers. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

142. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 15. 1909. Price, 10 cents 

143. Principles and Practical Methods of Curing Tobacco. 1909. Price, 10 cents 

144. Apple Blotch, a Serious Disease of Southern Orchards. ]909. Price 15 cents 

145. Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America. 1939. Price, 15 cents 

146. The Superiority of Line Breeding over Narrow Breeding. 1909. Price, 10 cents 
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143- Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 16. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

149. Diseases of Deciduous Forest Trees. 1909. Price, 15 cents 

150. Wild Alfalfas and Clovers of Siberia. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

151. Fruits Recommended for Cultivation. 1909. Price, 15 cents 

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154. Farm Water Supplies of Minnesota. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 
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155. A Study of Diversity in Egyptian Cotton. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

157. The Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

158. The Root-Rot of Tobacco Caused by Thielavia Basicola. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

159. Local Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

160. Italian Lemons and Their By-Products. 1909. Price, 15 cents 

161. A New Type of Indian Corn from China. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

162. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 18. 1909. Price, 10 cents 

163. Varieties of American Upland Cotton. 1910. Price, 25 cents. 

164. Promising Root Crops for the South. 1910. Price, 10 cents. 

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171. Some Fungous Diseases of Economic Importance. [In press.] 

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177. A Protected Stock Range in Arizona. 1910. Price, 15 cents. 

178 



